Carbohydrates and Sugars
Carbohydrates are one of three basic macronutrients needed to sustain life (the other two are proteins and fats). They are found in a wide range of foods that bring a variety of other important nutrients to the diet, such as vitamins and minerals, phytochemicals, antioxidants, and dietary fiber. Fruits, vegetables, grain foods, and many dairy products naturally contain carbohydrates in varying amounts, including sugars, which are a type of carbohydrate that can add taste appeal to a nutritious diet.
Carbohydrate Classification
Carbohydrates encompass a broad range of sugars, starches, and fiber. The basic building block of a carbohydrate is a simple union of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The chemical definition of a carbohydrate is any compound containing these three elements and having twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen and carbon.
Sugars in Foods
When people hear the word “sugar” they often think of the familiar sweetener in the sugar bowl. That sugar is sucrose and is the most familiar form of sugar to home bakers. But there are many types of sugars, which scientists classify according to their chemical structure. Sugars occur naturally in a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and dairy foods. They can also be produced commercially and added to foods to heighten sweetness and for the many technical functions they perform, including: contributing to foods’ structure and texture, sweetening and flavor enhancement, controlling crystallization, providing a medium for the growth of yeast in baked goods, and preventing spoilage. The sweetening ability of sugar can promote the consumption of nutrient-rich foods that might not be otherwise. Some examples are a sprinkle of sugar added to oatmeal or adding sugar to cranberries in the juice-making process.
Sugars come in several forms, most containing approximately four calories per gram. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides, made up of single sugar molecules. Examples of these are glucose, fructose, and galactose. When two simple sugars are joined together by a chemical bond they are called disaccharides, the most common of which is sucrose or table sugar. Table sugar is made up of equal amounts of the simple sugars glucose and fructose, which are joined together by chemical bonds. Starches and fiber are made up of many simple sugars joined together chemically. Any carbohydrate that is made up of more than two simple sugars is referred to as a polysaccharide. Some common sugars found in foods are:
- Corn Syrup: Made from corn and composed mainly of glucose.
- Fructose: A simple sugar found in fruits, honey, and root vegetables. It is used as a caloric sweetener, added to foods and beverages in the form of crystalline fructose (made from corn starch), and it makes up about half the sugar in sucrose or high fructose corn syrup (see below). Fructose does not elicit a glycemic response so it is sometimes used as a sweetener for foods intended for people with diabetes.
- Galactose: A simple sugar found in milk products.
- Glucose: The main source of energy for the body and the sugar produced when carbohydrates are digested or metabolized. Glucose is sometimes referred to as dextrose. Starch is comprised of long chains of glucose. Glucose make up exactly half of the sugar in sucrose and nearly half of the sugar in high fructose corn syrup.
- High Fructose Corn Syrup: A mixture of glucose and fructose produced from corn. The most common form of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has 55 percent fructose and 45 percent glucose.
- Lactose: The sugar found naturally in milk, it is composed of one galactose unit and one glucose unit; sometimes called milk sugar.
- Maltose: A disaccharide composed of two glucose units. It is found in molasses and is used in fermentation.
- Sucrose: Commonly referred to as table sugar, it is composed of one glucose unit and one fructose unit, bonded together.
Sugar Alcohols
A sugar alcohol is neither sugar nor alcohol but is actually a carbohydrate with a chemical structure that partially resembles a sugar and partially resembles an alcohol. Another term for sugar alcohols is polyols. They are a group of caloric sweeteners that are incompletely absorbed and metabolized by the body and consequently contribute fewer calories than sugars. The sugar alcohols or polyols commonly used in the United States include sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, maltitol, maltitol syrup, lactitol, erythritol, isomalt, and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates. Their caloric content ranges from .02 to 3 calories per gram compared to 4 calories per gram for sugars. Most sugar alcohols are less sweet than sucrose; maltitol and xylitol are about as sweet as sucrose.
Due to their incomplete absorption, the polyol sweeteners produce a lower glycemic response than glucose or sucrose and may be useful for people with diabetes. Sugar alcohol-sweetened products may have fewer calories than comparable products sweetened with sucrose or corn syrup and hence could play a useful role in weight management.
Carbohydrate and Sugars Consumption Recommendations
The Institute of Medicine’s Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Report recommends that Americans get the majority of their daily calories from carbohydrates—about 45 to 65 percent of daily calorie intake. Children and adults need a minimum of 130 grams of carbohydrates per day for proper brain function. The DRI for carbohydrates and sugars recommends a maximum intake level of 25 percent or less from added sugars.
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans outlines how important it is to eat nutrient-dense foods that are within one’s caloric needs. After basic nutrition requirements are met, any remaining calories in a person’s caloric needs are considered “discretionary” and allow for individual food choices and preferences. How many discretionary calories a person has in his or her diet will vary depending on an individual’s activity level and basic metabolic needs. The Dietary Guidelines suggest that consumers choose and prepare foods and beverages with only those added sugars or caloric sweeteners that fit into their discretionary calorie allowance.
Carbohydrates and Sugars in the Diet
- Safety: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has examined numerous sugars, including glucose, dextrose, fructose, sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, lactose, and maltose, and determined that they are “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS). According to the FDA, sugars for use in foods have a proven track record of safety based either on a history of use or on published scientific evidence, and can be used in food products without further FDA approval.
- Metabolism: Once ingested, most carbohydrates and complex sugars are broken down into the simple sugar glucose. However, in the digestion of sucrose, both glucose and fructose are released into the bloodstream. Glucose is the primary fuel utilized by the brain and working muscles. To protect the brain from a potential fuel shortage, the body maintains a fairly constant glucose level in the blood. Dietary glucose can be stored in the liver and muscle cells in units called glycogen. When the level of glucose in the blood starts to drop, glycogen can be converted to glucose to maintain blood glucose levels. Several hormones, including insulin, work rapidly to regulate the flow of glucose to and from the blood to keep it at a steady level. Insulin also allows the muscles to get the glucose they need from the blood supply. In the process of breaking down carbohydrates into glucose, the body is unable to distinguish between sugars that are added to foods and sugars that occur naturally in foods, since they are chemically the same.
- Carbohydrates, Sugars, and Weight Control: Calories are needed for normal body processes. However, people will gain weight when they eat more calories than they use up in daily activities and exercise. These excess calories can come from all macronutrients—fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and even alcohol. Carbohydrates or sugars eaten within daily calorie needs, by definition, do not cause weight gain. The Dietary Guidelines recommend choosing carbohydrates wisely while not exceeding calorie needs by selecting foods like fruits, vegetables, grains, and dairy products that are all nutrient dense.
- Diabetes: Diabetes is a metabolic disorder that occurs when the body cannot regulate blood glucose levels properly. In diabetes, either the pancreas does not make enough insulin (type 1 diabetes) or the body can not respond normally to the insulin that is made (type 2 diabetes). The causes of diabetes continue to be a mystery, although both genetics and environmental factors seem to play a role. Obesity and lack of exercise are important in susceptibility to type 2 diabetes. Interestingly, sugars are not “off limits” for people with diabetes. Current American Diabetes Association (ADA) nutritional recommendations do not provide specific guidelines for intake of sugars, except to note that sugars and other carbohydrates can be substituted for one another on a calorie-for calorie basis. The ADA also recommends limits on dietary fat and dietary saturated fat for diabetics.
- Glycemic Index: Glycemic index (GI) is a research tool that measures how carbohydrate-containing foods affect blood glucose levels. It is calculated by having one or more people eat a specific amount of a single food [usually the amount of food containing 50 grams of digestible carbohydrates (total carbohydrate minus fiber)] and then measuring the change in blood sugar levels compared with the levels achieved after they have eaten a control food containing the same amount of digestible carbohydrates, such as white bread or glucose. The average change in blood sugar levels over a set period of time relative to the levels after consumption of the control food, usually white bread or glucose, is the food’s glycemic index. According to the GI theory, the lower the GI number, the slower food is digested, allowing for glucose to be delivered more slowly to the bloodstream than with foods having a higher GI number. It can be very difficult to apply the glycemic index to foods consumed in the real world environment as GI can vary widely depending on the mixture of foods eaten, the ripeness of foods, the degree to which the foods are cooked, and other factors. Most scientists agree that more research is needed prior to recommending GI as a measure on which to base dietary recommendations for the general population.
- Dental Health: Sugars and cooked starches (e.g.: bread, pasta, crackers, and chips) are fermentable carbohydrates that contribute to the risk for dental caries. The degree of risk from a carbohydrate-rich food is related to several factors such as exposure time and frequency of consumption. However, risk can be decreased through several practices, the most important being proper oral hygiene and the use of topical fluorides, fluoridated toothpaste, and fluoridated water. Also important in reducing the risk of caries is eating a balanced diet in line with current dietary guidelines.
- Sugars, Mental Performance, and Behavior: Numerous studies with different populations show that sugar consumption does not affect hyperactivity, attention span, or cognitive performance in children.
The Bottom Line
As the main energy source for the body, carbohydrates are an important part of a healthful diet. Currently, experts agree that carbohydrates and sugars in foods and beverages can be enjoyed in moderation as part of a balanced diet and active lifestyle.
Originally printed in the 2007-2009 IFIC Foundation Media Guide on Food Safety and Nutrition
Child & Adolescent Nutrition, Health & Physical Activity
Backgrounder
Nutrition, Health & Physical Activity During Childhood and Early Adolescence
Nutritionists and other health professionals have long recognized the importance of establishing healthful nutrition practices during childhood and early adolescence. Diet and exercise patterns adopted during these prime developmental years set the stage for life-long habits that can mean the difference between vitality and infirmity in later years.
Infant Nutrition
The period from birth to two years is a critical window for the promotion of optimal growth, health, and behavioral development. Based on longitudinal studies, it is also the peak age for growth faltering, certain micronutrient deficiencies, and common childhood illnesses such as diarrhea. Nutritional deficits that occur during these formative years have immediate and long-term consequences. The former includes delayed motor and mental development; the latter is associated with impairments in intellectual performance, work capacity, reproductive outcomes, and overall health during adolescence and adulthood. For these reasons, adequate nutrition is essential to the achievement of a child’s full human potential.
The World Health Organization/UNICEF infant feeding guidelines support exclusive breast-feeding for the first six months of life and the continuation of breast-feeding, together with appropriate complementary feeding, for up to two years of age or beyond. Breast-feeding has nutritional as well as immunological benefits for the infant. In addition, current scientific evidence shows that breast-feeding may have a protective effect against childhood obesity. While breast-feeding is highly encouraged, iron-fortified infant formula is also acceptable for infants, if breast-feeding is not possible.
Complementary feeding is appropriate when breast-feeding alone is insufficient to meet infants’ nutrient requirements and when other solids and liquids are needed along with breast milk. Developmental readiness for complementary foods varies considerably among infants. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that parents introduce the first complementary foods between four and six months of age.
According to the AAP, babies should be fed simple, basic foods first. A single-grain, iron-fortified infant cereal is the best choice. Semiliquid ground rice cereal is often recommended because it is gluten-free and less-often associated with an allergic response (gluten is a protein that can sometimes trigger allergic reactions). The iron in fortified infant cereal helps prevent iron-deficiency anemia, a common nutritional disorder during infancy (around six months of age, babies’ natural iron stores are depleted). Once infants master that, they can gradually move up to strained or mashed foods, and, somewhere between seven to 10 months of age, finely chopped table foods. In addition to age, the following are some additional indications that a baby is ready to begin solid foods:
- The infant sits with help or support.
- When on its stomach, the infant pushes up on arms with straight elbows.
- The infant is interested in food when others eat.
One-at-a-time is the best approach for introducing new foods to babies. This gives them the chance to get accustomed to new tastes and textures and enables parents to identify adverse reactions to specific foods. If a particular food provokes a reaction (e.g. diarrhea, bloating, gas), it should be eliminated from the diet for one to three months before being offered to the child again. Research suggests that by one year of age, most babies are able to tolerate foods that had earlier caused a reaction. Introducing babies to a variety of foods and flavors in the first two years of life may increase their likelihood to try new foods.
Babies should always be sitting up to eat or drink, and positioned so that they can see the face of the person feeding them. Mealtimes provide important opportunities for babies and their caregivers to smile, laugh, and enjoy eating together. In addition, babies should not be fed when parents are rushed or pressed for time. Also, babies’ appetites can vary from day to day, and they will let caregivers know they are full by turning their heads away from the spoon or holding their lips closed. Babies should never be forced to eat after they have indicated fullness.
In children under two years of age, dietary fats play a key role in the formation of vital nerve and brain tissues. Health professionals do not recommend feeding reduced-fat foods to children of this age. For example, use of whole milk rather than low-fat or fat-free milk is advised.
To help guard against developing nursing bottle dental caries, caregivers should never put infants to bed with a bottle of milk, formula, or other liquid.
Growing Up
Nutrition recommendations for children over the age of two differ little from those for adults (see Backgrounder on Dietary Guidance). However, the recommendations for children are designed to promote optimal growth and development and therefore may not be as restrictive as those for adults. A wide variety of foods rich in essential nutrients is necessary for growing bodies, and forms the basis of these recommendations.
As indicated in the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s food guidance system, MyPyramid, such foods include carbohydrate-rich grains, fruits, and vegetables necessary to supply vitamins, minerals, fiber, and energy vital to good health. Adequate amounts of dairy products, lean meats, fish, poultry, eggs, dry beans, and nuts also provide nutrients that contribute to proper growth and development.
Most children will grow about two inches and gain about four to seven pounds per year. Between the ages of six and 12, youngsters will grow an average of one to two feet and almost double in weight. Diminished weight-for-height may be indicative of acute undernutrition; decreased height-for-age may suggest chronic undernutrition. Such growth underachievement may be due to malnutrition, psychosocial deprivation, eating disorders, underlying chronic disease, infection, or other factors.
While children often have definite food likes and dislikes, dietitians and nutritionists recommend parents make available a wide variety of foods and encourage the tasting of new foods in small quantities without forcing the issue. In this manner, children will often come to accept and like new foods. In addition, nutrition experts often urge parents not to insist that children “clean their plates.” Children may benefit from choosing their own portion size, provided that the food is wholesome and nutritious. Finally, parents are advised to avoid using food to reward or punish behavior.
Teen Nutrition
Adolescents’ caloric needs vary depending on their growth rate, degree of physical maturation, body composition, and activity level. However, they do need extra nutrients to support the adolescent growth spurt, which, for girls, begins at ages 10 or 11, reaches its peak at age 12, and is completed by about age 15. In boys, it begins at 12 or 13 years of age, peaks at age 14, and ends by about age 19.
In addition to other nutrients, adequate amounts of iron and calcium are particularly important as the adolescent body undergoes this intensive growth period. From ages nine to 18 years, both males and females are encouraged to consume a calcium-rich diet (1,300 milligrams daily) in order to ensure adequate calcium deposits in the bones. This may help reduce the incidence of osteoporosis in later years. The recommended calcium intake can be achieved by getting at least three cups of fat-free or low-fat milk daily or the equivalent amount of low-fat yogurt and/or low-fat cheese. For those who don’t wish to consume dairy products, a variety of other calcium sources are available such as green, leafy vegetables, calcium-fortified soy products, and other calcium-fortified foods and beverages.
Meal Patterns
To meet energy needs, children and teens should eat at least three meals a day, beginning with breakfast. Studies show eating breakfast affects both cognitive and physical performance; that is, if a child eats breakfast, he or she may be more alert in school and better able to learn and to perform sports or other physical activities.
Snacks also form an integral part of meal patterns for children and teens. Young children often cannot eat large quantities of food at one sitting and often feel hungry before the next regular mealtime. Mid-morning and midafternoon snacks may be appropriate for this age.
Fast-growing, active teens may have tremendous energy needs. Even though their regular meals can be substantial, they still may need snacks to supply energy between meals and to meet their daily nutrient needs. For adolescents who are less active or who have already gone through the growth spurt, the role of snacking may need to be assessed.
Eating Disorders
Teens’ food choices are often influenced by social pressure to achieve cultural ideals of thinness, gain peer acceptance, or assert independence from parental authority. These factors may increase a young person’s risk for developing eating disorders. An eating disorder is an emotional and physical problem that is associated with an obsession with food, body weight, or body shape. A teenager with an eating disorder diets, exercises, and/or eats excessively as a way of coping with the physical and emotional changes of adolescence. The three most common types of eating disorders are anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating. Each type has its own symptoms and diagnosis.
According to the National Mental Health Information Center, as many as 10 million girls and women and one million boys and men are struggling with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa (a disorder causing people to severely limit their food intake) or bulimia (a disorder in which people binge and purge by vomiting or using laxatives). Both anorexia and bulimia can lead to convulsions, kidney failure, irregular heartbeats, osteoporosis, and dental erosion. Those suffering from compulsive overeating or binge-eating disorder are at risk for heart attack, developing high blood pressure and high cholesterol, kidney disease and/or failure, arthritis, bone deterioration, and stroke.
The American Dietetic Association states that medical nutrition therapy and psychotherapy are two integral components in the treatment of eating disorders. These are such complex illnesses that the expertise of multidisciplinary healthcare professionals is required.
Overweight and Obesity among Children and Adolescents
Adults are not alone in the concern about weight management. In addition to the increase in the prevalence of adults who are obese or overweight, adolescent and childhood obesity and overweight are also on the rise.
Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2003-2004), indicate that 14 percent of two to five year olds and 17 percent of children and adolescents ages 12-19 years in the United States are overweight. The prevalence of overweight children and adolescents has quadrupled and tripled, respectively, in the last 30 years. Only a small percentage of overweight children may attribute their problem to endocrine disorder or other underlying physical problems. Overweight and obesity can be determined by Body Mass Index (BMI). (See the Backgrounder on Overweight, Obesity & Weight Management for more information.)
When children are overweight, the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend reducing the rate of weight gain while allowing for growth and development. Overweight children and adolescents are more likely to be overweight or obese as adults. Therefore, health professionals emphasize healthful eating and the importance of physical activity as a life-long approach to weight management and to overall good health and quality of life. Before placing a child on a weight control plan, a healthcare provider should always be consulted.
Physical Activity for Children and Teens
Strong bones, good muscle tone, and lower risk of developing chronic diseases are some of the key benefits derived from regular physical activity. Furthermore, being physically active promotes psychological well-being and reduces feelings of depression and anxiety. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Division of Adolescent and School Health, 77 percent of children aged nine to 13 years participate in free-time physical activity and only 39 percent engage in organized physical activity. Among high school students, 63 percent participate in vigorous physical activity and just 25 percent engage in sufficient moderate physical activity. Twelve percent engage in little or no physical activity at all.
Participation in physical activity tends to decline as children get older. The long-term consequences of physical inactivity include an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, asthma, arthritis, and premature death. To maintain good health status, the Dietary Guidelines and MyPyramid recommend that children and adolescents engage in at least 60 minutes of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week.
Originally printed in the 2007-2009 IFIC Foundation Media Guide on Food Safety and Nutrition
- Kidnetic.com
- Kidnetic.com Resources from the IFIC Foundation
External Resources
- American Academy of Pediatrics
- American Dietetic Association
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
- My Pyramid for Kids
- World Health Organization (WHO)
Backgrounder
People have always sought ways to prolong food’s freshness after harvest and slaughter, so that it can be safely eaten at a later time. Archeological evidence shows that the ancient Egyptians ate foods that were not only cooked and baked, but also dried, salted, and fermented. These foods were processed to preserve them. The ancient Chinese discovered that fruit could be ripened by placing it near a kerosene lamp. Neither of these civilizations understood the science behind why these processes worked, but they readily embraced them.
Food additives have been used for centuries, despite their association with modern-day food production. Our ancestors used salt to preserve meats and fish; added herbs and spices to improve the flavor of foods; preserved fruit with sugar; and pickled or canned vegetables, such as cucumbers, with vinegar.
Today, we have the luxury of living in a time when processes such as canning and freezing are commonplace, when refrigeration and access to a myriad of ingredients and spices make it possible to literally eat any type of food whenever desired. The basic purpose behind processing food is not only to make it safe to eat at a later date, but also look, taste and smell as enticing and as close to freshly prepared as possible. Much of the availability, convenience and variety that Western civilization enjoys in its food supply is directly due to food processing. Food processing often uses specific ingredients added to foods to maintain the sensory properties of the food. These food additives are one of the many things that allow consumers to enjoy crunchy cookies, tender pot roast, moist breads, and crisp salads. Since food that doesn’t taste, look, or smell good won’t be eaten, food additives are an essential ingredient in our food supply.
What Is a Food Additive?
A food additive, in its broadest sense, is any substance added to food. According to regulations the term refers to “any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result—directly or indirectly—in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food.” This definition includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation, or storage of food.
Additives can be used as ingredients to preserve, flavor, blend, enhance the texture, and color food. They play an important role in reducing serious nutritional deficiencies and promoting food safety. Their use ensures the availability of wholesome, appetizing, and affordable foods that meet consumer demands from season to season.
There are thousands of ingredients used to make foods. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) maintains a list of more than 3000 ingredients in its database “Everything Added to Food in the United States,” many of which we use at home every day (e.g., sugar, baking soda, salt, vanilla, yeast, spices, and colors).
Still, some consumers have concerns about additives because they may see the long, unfamiliar names and think of them as complex chemical compounds. All food additives are carefully regulated by federal authorities and various international organizations to ensure that foods are safe to eat and are accurately labeled. Federal regulations require scientific evidence that each substance is safe at its intended level of use before it may be used in food. All additives are subject to ongoing safety reviews as scientific understanding and methods of testing continue to improve. In addition, regulations known as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) limit the amount of food and color additives used to the level necessary to achieve their desired effect.
Why Are Food and Color Ingredients Added to Food?
Additives perform a variety of useful functions in foods that consumers often take for granted. Some additives could be eliminated if we were willing to grow our own food, harvest and grind it, spend many hours cooking and canning, or accept increased risks of food spoilage. But most consumers today rely on the many technological, aesthetic, and convenient benefits that additives provide.
- To Maintain or Improve Safety and Freshness: Preservatives slow product spoilage caused by yeast, mold, bacteria, fungi, or exposure to air. In addition to maintaining the quality of the food, they help control contamination that can cause foodborne illness. One group of preservatives—antioxidants—prevents fats and oils, and the foods containing them, from becoming rancid or developing an off-flavor. They also prevent cut fresh fruits such as apples from turning brown when exposed to air. Examples of preservatives include ascorbic acid, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and sodium nitrite.
- To Improve or Maintain Nutritional Value: Vitamins and minerals (and fiber) are added to many foods to make up for those lacking in a person’s diet or lost in processing, or to enhance the nutritional quality of a food. Generally, enrichment refers to the restoration of nutrients lost during food processing. In this case, the amount of nutrients added is approximately equal to the natural content in the food before processing. In fortification, the amount of nutrient added may be higher than that present before processing. Fortification also standardizes the contents of nutrients that show variable concentrations. A typical example is the addition of vitamin C to orange juice to standardize vitamin C concentration and compensate for changes due to seasonal and processing variations. Such fortification and enrichment has helped reduce malnutrition in the U.S. and worldwide. Grains, flours, milk, margarine, and other foods are enriched or fortified by adding vitamins A and D, iron, ascorbic acid, calcium, niacin, riboflavin, folic acid, zinc, and thiamin. All products containing added nutrients must be appropriately labeled.
- To Improve Taste, Texture, and Appearance: Spices, natural and artificial flavors, and sweeteners are added to enhance the taste of food. Food colors maintain or improve appearance. Emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickeners give foods the texture and consistency consumers expect. Leavening agents allow baked goods to rise during baking. Some additives help control the acidity and alkalinity of foods, while other ingredients help maintain the taste and appeal of foods with reduced fat content.
Other Types and Examples of Food Additives
Low-Calorie Sweeteners
Low-calorie sweeteners add a sweet flavor to foods without adding a significant amount of calories. Most low-calorie sweeteners are generally several hundred to several thousand times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). While most do not contain any calories, those that do (e.g., aspartame) are used in very small amounts because of their concentrated sweetening power, and thus do not contribute a significant amount of calories. Unlike sucrose, low-calorie sweeteners do not affect insulin levels and can provide a sweet flavor to foods and beverages for people who must limit carbohydrates in their diets, such as people with diabetes. In addition, low-calorie sweeteners do not cause dental cavities (tooth decay).
There are five low-calorie sweeteners currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the United States: acesulfame potassium (Ace-K), aspartame, neotame, saccharin, and sucralose. The table on page 3 summarizes the key traits of each sweetener.
| Low-Calorie Sweeteners Used in the United States | |||||
| | Acesulfame potassium | Aspartame | Neotame | Saccharin | Sucralose |
| Approximate Sweetening Power Compared with Sucrose | 200 times sweeter | 200 times sweeter | 7,000 to 13,000 times sweeter | 300 times sweeter | 600 times sweeter |
| Metabolism/ Excretion | Not metabolized; excreted by the kidneys unchanged | Upon digestion, breaks down to aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and small amounts of methanol, all of which are metabolized normally | Quickly metabolized and fully eliminated via normal biological processes | Not metabolized; excreted by the kidneys unchanged | Not metabolized; excreted in the feces and urine |
| Date of Initial FDA Approval for Use in Foods | 1988 | 1981 | 2002 | 1900 | 1998 |
| Stability | Highly stable; can be used in cooking and baking | Loses sweetness when exposed to high heat; add to foods at end of cooking cycle | Highly stable; can be used in cooking and baking | Highly stable; can be used in cooking and baking | Highly stable; can be used in cooking and baking |
Food Colors
A color additive is any dye, pigment, or substance which when added or applied to a food is capable (alone or through reactions with other substances) of imparting color. FDA is responsible for regulating all color additives to ensure that foods containing color additives are safe to eat, contain only approved ingredients and are accurately labeled.
| Certified Color Additives |
| FD&C Blue Nos. 1 and 2 |
| FD&C Green No. 3 |
| FD&C Red Nos. 3 and 40 |
| FD&C Yellow No. 5 (tartrazine) and No. 6 |
| Orange B |
| Citrus Red No. 2 |
Color additives are used in foods for many reasons: 1) to offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature extremes, moisture, and storage conditions; 2) to correct natural variations in color; 3) to enhance colors that occur naturally; and 4) to provide color to colorless and “fun” foods. Without color additives, colas wouldn’t be brown, margarine wouldn’t be yellow, and mint ice cream wouldn’t be green.
FDA’s permitted colors are subject to rigorous safety standards prior to their approval and listing for use in foods. Color additives used in foods fall into two groups: those that are subject to certification and those that are exempt from certification.
- Certified colors are synthetically produced (human made) and used widely because they impart an intense, uniform color, are less expensive, and blend more easily to create a variety of hues. There are nine certified color additives approved for use in the United States (See chart for complete list.). Certified food colors generally do not add undesirable flavors to foods.
- Colors that are exempt from certification include pigments derived from natural sources such as vegetables, minerals, or animals. Nature-derived color additives are typically more expensive than certified colors and may add unintended flavors to foods. Examples of exempt colors include annatto extract (yellow), dehydrated beets (bluish-red to brown), caramel (yellow to tan), beta carotene (yellow to orange), and grape skin extract (red, green).
Caffeine
Caffeine is a naturally occurring substance found in the leaves, seeds, or fruits of more than 60 plants. Food and beverages derived from cocoa beans, kola nuts, and tea leaves often contain some caffeine. In the United States, coffee is the chief source of dietary caffeine. In addition, caffeine is added to some foods and beverages as a flavoring.
Caffeine from coffee and tea beverages has been part of the world’s diet for thousands of years. Caffeine was classified as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) ingredient in 1958, when the FDA first reviewed all food additives for safety. Since that time, numerous studies have been conducted on caffeine and have shown that moderate amounts of caffeine—about 300 milligrams per day—are safe for most adults, including pregnant women.
The chart below provides information on the caffeine content of various foods and beverages.
| Milligrams of Caffeine | ||
| Item | Typical | Range* |
| Coffee (8 fl. oz. cup) | ||
| 85 | 65–120 |
| 75 | 60–85
|
| 3 | 2–4 |
| 40 | 30–50 |
| Teas (8 fl. oz. cup) | ||
| 40 | 20–90 |
| 28 | 24–31 |
| 25 | 9–50 |
| Some soft drinks (8 fl. oz.) | 24 | 20–40 |
| Energy drinks (8 fl. oz.) | 75 | 72–75 |
| Cocoa beverage (8 fl. oz.) | 6 | 3–32 |
| Chocolate milk beverage (8 fl. oz.) | 5 | 2–7 |
| Milk chocolate (1 oz.) | 6 | 1–15 |
| Dark chocolate, semi-sweet (1 oz.) | 20 | 5–35 |
| Baker’s chocolate (1 oz.) 26 26 | ||
| Chocolate-flavored syrup (1 fl. oz.) | 4 | 4 |
| *For the coffee and tea products, the range varies due to brewing method, plant variety, brand of product, etc. | ||
| Source: Compiled by the International Food Information Council. | ||
Food Ingredient Labeling
Ingredient labeling is an important source of information for consumers about the composition of packaged foods. Federal food, meat, and poultry laws require a statement of ingredients on most food labels. Both FDA and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) regulations require that ingredients be listed in order of their predominance in a food by their common, specific names.
Regulation of Food Additives and Ingredients
The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) of 1938 provides the FDA legal authority over food, food ingredients, and additives. The Food Additives Amendment to the FDCA, passed in 1958, requires FDA approval for the use of an additive prior to its inclusion in food. It also requires the manufacturer to prove an additive’s safety for the ways it will be used. In 1960, the Color Additive Amendments to the FDCA requires that conditions for safe use of a color additive be established by regulation. Burden for proving safety is placed on the manufacturer.
Two groups of substances are exempt from the Food Additives Amendment. Substances sanctioned by the FDA or USDA prior to 1958 and substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS). These include substances such as salt, sugar, spices, caffeine, vitamins, monosodium glutamate (MSG), and several hundred other food ingredients. Since 1958, the FDA and USDA continue to monitor prior sanctioned and GRAS substances in response to new scientific information and evidence on the safety of these substances.
FDA Approval of Food Additives
Approximately 100 new food and color additive petitions are submitted to the FDA annually. A food or color additive petition must provide convincing evidence that the proposed additive performs as it is intended and is safe for human consumption under the intended conditions of use. Upon approval, the FDA issues regulations including the types of foods in which an additive can be used, the maximum amounts to be used, and how they must be identified on food labels. Additives proposed for use in meat and poultry products must also receive specific authorization by USDA.
When evaluating the safety of a substance and whether it should be approved, FDA considers: 1) the composition and properties of the substance, 2) the amount that would typically be consumed, 3) immediate and long-term health effects, and 4) various safety factors. The evaluation determines an appropriate level of use that includes a built-in safety margin—a factor that allows for uncertainty about the levels of consumption that are expected to be harmless. In other words, the levels of use that gain approval are much lower than what would be expected to have any adverse effect.
Because of inherent limitations of science, FDA can never be absolutely certain of the absence of any risk from the use of any substance. Therefore, FDA must determine—based on the best science available—if there is a reasonable certainty of no harm to consumers when an additive is used as proposed.
If an additive is approved, FDA issues regulations that may include the types of foods in which it can be used, the maximum amounts to be used, and how it should be identified on food labels. In 1999, procedures changed so that FDA now consults with USDA during the review process for ingredients that are proposed for use in meat and poultry products. Federal officials then monitor the extent of Americans’ consumption of the new additive and results of any new research on its safety to ensure its use continues to be within safe limits.
If new evidence suggests that a product already in use may be unsafe, or if consumption levels have changed enough to require another look, federal authorities may prohibit its use or conduct further studies to determine if the use can still be considered safe.
Food Additives and Health
The FDA operates the Adverse Reaction Monitoring System (ARMS) to help serve as an ongoing safety check of all additives. The system monitors and investigates all complaints by individuals or their physicians that are believed to be related to a specific food, food and color additives, or vitamin and mineral supplements. The ARMS computerized database helps officials decide whether reported adverse reactions represent a real public health risk associated with food so that appropriate action can be taken.
Both the Food Additives Amendment and the Color Additive Amendment include a provision that prohibits the approval of an additive if it is found to cause cancer in humans or animals. This clause, referred to as the Delaney Clause, says that no additive known to be carcinogenic can be approved for use in food in any amount. The enforcement of the Delaney clause presents a challenge for regulators. According to the FDA, regulators have faced a dilemma in light of technological advances that enable scientists to identify smaller and smaller concentrations of a substance and conduct more sensitive toxicological tests. Are such tiny amounts a health threat? Scientists have yet to answer this question. Congress has held hearings to examine the pros and cons of liberalizing the Delaney clause. Debates on the issue continue.
In the 1970s, some scientists suggested that food additives or colors may be linked to childhood hyperactivity. Since that time, well-controlled studies have been conducted and have produced no evidence that food additives or colors cause hyperactivity or learning disabilities in children. In 1982, the Consensus Development Panel of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) concluded that there was no scientific evidence to support the claim that additives or colorings cause hyperactivity. However, the panel noted that for some children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and confirmed food allergy, dietary modification has produced some improvement in behavior. The panel said that elimination diets should not be used universally to treat childhood hyperactivity, since there is no scientific evidence to predict which children may benefit. Subsequent scientific studies continue to support the NIH panel’s conclusion.1
1 Taylor and Dormedy, Allergy 1998;53: (Suppl.46) 80-82. Adverse reactions to tartrazine have been reported anecdotally but a cause and effect relationship has not been established in controlled challenge studies. There is even less firm evidence for allergic reactions to other synthetic (FDC approved) coloring materials. In these cases, there has been considerable controversy about the proper method to carry out blinded challenges.
Originally printed in the 2007-2009 IFIC Foundation Media Guide on Food Safety and Nutrition
Educational Booklets & Brochures
- Everything You Need to Know About Aspartame
- Everything You Need to Know About Caffeine
- Everything You Need to Know About Sucralose
- Food Ingredients & Colors
External Resources
- American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
- American Dietetic Association (ADA) Position Paper: Use of nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners
- Food & Drug Administration (FDA) http://www.fda.gov/ International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Publication Hydration: Fluids for Life
- National Cancer Institute (NCI) Artificial Sweeteners and Cancer: Questions and Answers
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Backgrounder
Dietary fat is a nutrient needed for an overall healthful lifestyle. Like carbohydrates and protein, dietary fat is an important source of energy for the body. Fat is the most concentrated source of energy in the diet, providing nine calories per gram compared with four calories per gram from either carbohydrates or protein.
Dietary fat supplies essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids, which are especially important to children for proper growth. In addition, fat is required for maintenance of healthy skin, for regulation of cholesterol metabolism, and as a precursor of prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that regulate many body functions. It is also needed to carry and aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and carotenoids. In some cases, dietary fat supplies the vitamin too—for example, the major source of vitamin E in the diet is soybean oil.
The largest amount of fat is stored in the body’s adipose (fat) cells but, some fat is found in blood plasma and other body cells. These fat deposits not only store energy, but also are important in insulating the body and supporting and cushioning organs.
Physical and Functional Properties of Dietary Fats and Cholesterol
Fats are composed of the same three elements as carbohydrates namely carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. However, fats have relatively more carbon and hydrogen and less oxygen, thus accounting for the higher energy value of nine calories per gram.
Technically, fats should be referred to in the plural, as there is no one type of fat. Fats are actually combinations of many different fatty acids which exert characteristic physiological and metabolic effects in the body. Saturated and unsaturated fats are designated by the presence of double bonds within the chain of carbon atoms in the fatty acid. Saturated fats have no double bonds, whereas unsaturated fats have double bonds. Unsaturated fats with one double bond are called monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and those with more than one double bond are called polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (See Chart). In general, fats containing a majority of saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature, although some solid vegetable shortenings are up to 75 percent unsaturated. Fats containing mostly unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid at room temperature and are called oils. Saturated fatty acids are more stable than unsaturated fatty acids because of their chemical structure. Stability is especially important in cooking oil and food products containing oils/fats as ingredients to maintain flavor, cooking performance, and to prevent rancidity.
Polyunsaturated fats are further distinguished by the position of the double bonds in their structure. Designated by “omega” (e.g., omega-3, omega-6), this term indicates the position of the beginning of the first double bond starting from the methyl end of the fatty acid. Two examples of omega-3 fatty acids include eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Oily fish from cold waters, such as salmon, mackerel, tuna, and trout are especially rich in EPA and DHA. (For a list of common saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, see Chart).
| Systematic Name | Common Name | Typical Fat Source |
| Common Saturated Fatty Acids | ||
| Hexanoic Acid | Caproic Acid | Butterfat |
| Octanoic Acid | Caprylic Acid | Coconut Oil |
| Decanoic Acid | Capric Acid | Coconut Oil |
| Dodecanoic Acid | Lauric Acid | Coconut Oil |
| Tetradecanoic Acid | Myristic Acid | Butterfat, Coconut Oils |
| Hexadecanoic Acid | Palmitic Acid | Palm, Cottonseed Oils |
| Octadecanoic Acid | Stearic Acid | Cocoa Butter, Animal Fat |
| Eicsanoic Acid | Arachidic Acid | Peanut Oil |
| Common Unsaturated Fatty Acids | ||
| Hexadecenoic Acid | Palmitoleic Acid | Some Fish Oils, Beef Fat |
| 9-Octadecenoic Acid | Oleic Acid | Olive, Canola Oils |
| 9, 12 Octadecadienoic Acid | *Linoleic Acid | Soybean, Corn Oils |
| 9,12,15 Octadecatrienoic Acid | *Alpha-Linolenic Acid | Soybean, Canola Oils |
| 5, 8,11,14 Eicosatetraenoic Acid | Arachidonic Acid | Lard |
| 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 Eicosapentaenoic Acid | EPA | Some Fish Oils |
| Docosohexaenoic Acid | DHA | Some Fish Oils |
*Essential Fatty Acids
Saturated Fat
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that healthy people consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fats daily. Meats, baked goods, and full-fat dairy products are the main sources of saturated fats in most diets. Coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils also contain saturated fats.
Unsaturated Fat
Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids are unsaturated fats. When they replace saturated fats in the diet, they help reduce blood cholesterol levels and thus lower the risk of heart disease. The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend keeping total fat intake between 20 and 35 percent of calories with most fats coming from sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils.
Canola, olive, peanut, high oleic safflower and sunflower oils, and nuts are rich in monounsaturated fats. Sources of alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids, which are unsaturated fats and essential, include vegetable oils, walnuts, and flaxseed.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a fat-like substance that is necessary in many physiological processes such as, a component of cell membranes, the production of bile acids (which aid in food digestion), and in the production of sex hormones. An excess of cholesterol in the blood, however, can lead to deposits in the walls of blood vessels and reduce blood flow to major arteries, which can lead to a heart attack.
Contrary to popular belief, most cholesterol found in the blood is manufactured by the body itself, not derived through foods consumed in the diet. Dietary cholesterol is found only in animal foods such as egg yolks, butter, organ meats, beef, chicken, and shellfish. Vegetable oils and shortenings are cholesterol-free.
Trans Fatty Acids
Hydrogenation, developed in the early 1900s, is the process of adding hydrogen molecules directly to unsaturated fatty acids such as those found in vegetable oil. Hydrogenated oils contribute important textural and stability properties in food. The firmness and spreadability of margarines, flakiness of piecrust, creaminess of puddings, and crispiness of French fries are characteristics provided by hydrogenated oil ingredients.
During partial hydrogenation, some hydrogen atoms move from being on the same side of a double bond (cis) to being on the opposite side of a double bond forming a new configuration of fatty acids referred to as "trans," meaning "opposite." The trans fat content of partially hydrogenated oils may vary widely depending on the level of hydrogenation employed and the amount used in that particular product. For example, the amount of trans fat in a product containing lightly hydrogenated vegetable oil listed low in the ingredient list can be nutritionally insignificant. When an oil appears in the ingredient list as "hydrogenated," this means that it has been fully hydrogenated, or completely saturated with hydrogen atoms, therefore resulting as a saturated fatty acid which contains no trans fats.
Trans fatty acids are found naturally occurring in beef, lamb, and dairy products. However, the main sources of trans fats in the U.S. diet are partially hydrogenated oils which are found in foods such as cookies, crackers, pastries and fried foods. The National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine recently concluded that trans fatty acids are similar to saturated fats and dietary cholesterol with regard to their effect on blood low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. In addition, some studies suggest that increased intake of trans fats may lower high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. The mean trans fatty acid intake in the U.S. is 2.6 percent of calories compared with 12 percent of calories from saturated fat.
Dietary Fats and Disease
Coronary Heart Disease
The main concern about excess saturated and trans fats in the diet centers on their potential role in raising blood cholesterol, a risk factor in the development of coronary heart disease (CHD). However, one saturated fatty acid that has gotten a lot of attention is stearic acid, found primarily in cocoa butter and animal fat, which is found to have a neutral effect on blood cholesterol. Further research is being conducted to determine the effect, if any, of stearic acid on other cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Physicians and other health professionals measure the level of blood cholesterol to help determine an individual’s risk for CHD. According to the National Institutes of Health, less than 200 mg/dl is considered a desirable blood cholesterol level; more than 240 mg/dl is considered high total cholesterol. Scientists also have identified individual classes of blood cholesterol. Referred to as the “bad cholesterol,” LDL fractions contain most of the cholesterol in the blood and are associated with cholesterol deposits on artery walls, more commonly known as plaque. Referred to as the “good cholesterol,” HDL fractions are believed to carry cholesterol out of the blood and back to the liver for breakdown and excretion. Thus, having high HDL levels of cholesterol; greater than 40 mg/dL, may be as important as having low LDL levels; less than 100 mg/dL, to reduce the risk of heart disease.
In addition to diet, a wide variety of risk factors influence blood cholesterol. Risk factors beyond control include age, race, and gender. But there are many risk factors that individuals can influence. These include following a healthful diet, maintaining healthy weight, getting adequate physical activity, controlling high blood pressure, avoiding cigarette smoking, and managing stress. For some people, heredity may be an even stronger predictor of blood cholesterol than diet.
Obesity
An individual’s body weight is determined by a combination of genetic, metabolic, behavioral, environmental, cultural, and socioeconomic influences. Investigations into the cause of obesity reveal that energy intake, irrespective of macronutrient source, plays a key role in body weight. For example, as the percent of calories from fats has declined in the U.S. diet, there is no evidence that body weight is also declining. However, research has shown that a considerable decrease in the number of calories from fat will result in a small loss of body weight for normal weight and moderately obese individuals.
Cancer
In 2005, the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee concluded that the “evidence between total fat intake and certain cancers is suggestive but not conclusive.” Data suggest that diets low in folate and calcium and high in total fat, calories, meat, and alcohol are associated with an increased risk of developing colorectal cancer and that dietary fat from animal sources may be linked to a higher risk of prostate cancer. Current research shows that dietary fat intake in general does not seem to be associated with risk of breast cancer.
One of the questions that remains is whether associations noted between dietary fats and risk for developing cancer are correlated with the amount of fat, attributable to the type of fatty acid, or related to some other factor in food. Exploring the relationship between cancer and specific types of fats is an important area of current research.
Moderating Dietary Fat
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend a total fat intake between 20 and 35 percent of calories for adults to meet daily energy and nutritional needs while minimizing risk of chronic disease. In 2002, The Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommended that the intake of saturated fats be less than 10 percent of calories, cholesterol be less than 300 mg/day, and trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible. Consumption of certain fatty acids are encouraged because of their positive health effects, which are explored in-depth in the Functional Foods section of IFIC.org. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s MyPyramid food guidance system recommends oils from foods such as vegetable oils, nuts, and some fish because of their healthful attributes.
According to the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals, the median intake of total fat in the U.S. ranges from about 32 to 34 percent of total calories. The main contributors include butter, margarine, vegetable oils, egg yolks, nuts, baked goods, and visible fat on meat and poultry. Saturated fats provide approximately 11 to 12 percent of calories in adult diets, according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted between 1999 and 2000.
Types of Fat Reduction Ingredients
To help Americans moderate their dietary fat intake, advances in food science have allowed for the development of a wide variety of reduced-fat meat, dairy, and packaged food products. Fat replacers are developed to duplicate the taste and texture of fats and generally fall into three categories: carbohydrate-, protein-, or fat-based. To begin, many lower fat products in the marketplace resulted from new processing techniques using commonplace ingredients such as water, gums, and sugars. Other fat replacers are made from proteins or fats. Each type of fat replacer ingredient provides some or all of the taste and functions of fats such as moistness in baked goods. The ingredients that are used to replace fats depend on how the food product will be eaten or prepared. For example, not all fat replacer ingredients are heat stable. As such, the type of fat replacer used in a fat-free salad dressing may not work well for a muffin mix.
Fats of the Future: Alternatives to Trans Fat in the Food Supply
The results of fatty acid research, both in terms of health and functionality, are likely to have practical applications for food scientists. Scientists continue to look for ways to provide trans fatty acid—or “trans fat”—alternatives to help consumers meet recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Trans fat alternatives must provide the same functional characteristics such as texture, crispness, appearance, and stability of the product being replaced, while also remaining cost effective and abundant for use. The challenge is in bringing to consumers acceptable alternatives with these functional attributes that are lower in or free of trans fats, as well as lower in saturated fats. To help consumers control blood cholesterol profiles, margarines have been placed on the market with no trans fatty acids, and certain margarines also contain beneficial plant sterols. For more information about plant sterols, see the Functional Foods section of IFIC.org.
The evolving research behind dietary fats offers a great opportunity for nutrition scientists and food scientists to work in concert to deliver nutrition recommendations that promote health, and food products that deliver on those recommendations.
Fats on the Food Label
Historically both total fat and saturated fat are listed on the Nutrition Facts panel (NFP) on the food label. As of January 1, 2006, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) will require trans fat to be listed below the saturated fat line in the NFP. Many food manufactures are taking advantage of this change in the NFP to voluntarily provide information about polyunsaturated fats (PUFA) and monounsaturated fats (MUFA) contained in the product. Consumers can use this information, along with both health claims that meet significant scientific agreement (SSA) and those that are “qualified,” on food packaging to make more informed choices about products before purchase.
Health claims are an example of a label education tool regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). They appear on food packages to aid the consumer with additional nutrition information about health effects of that specific food. These claims display the strength of scientific evidence representing the relationship between a food component and a disease or health-related condition. Health claims have historically focused on foods low in fat, saturated fats, and cholesterol. Health claim declarations include references to some cancers and coronary heart disease risk.
“Qualified” health claims, which characterize the level of scientific evidence linking a specific food component or food to a disease or health-related condition, are more common as additional science becomes available on individual fatty acids and their impact on health. These claims display the strength of scientific evidence representing the relationship of that specific food with a disease or health related condition. The FDA, after evaluation of research on two fatty acids, released two qualified health claims for EPA/DHA and olive oil to acknowledge their possible beneficial effects of reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. Currently, other fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), alpha-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, stearic acid, and a multitude of other fatty acids are beginning to be studied further to determine their impact on health.
Balancing Calories
Ultimately, weight management is dependent on balancing the number of calories consumed with the number of calories expended. The specific question for researchers is whether consumers compensate—or even over-compensate—for calories or fats when consuming nutrient-modified foods. Currently, research has moved into focusing on how our body recognizes signals of fullness. It is unclear whether the energy-density or the proportion of nutrients such as fat, protein, carbohydrates, fiber, and water that are present in a given meal sends the signal of fullness to the body.
Generally the research finds that individuals who are good at regulating their calorie intake over time will continue to do so when consuming reduced-fat foods. This results in the same number of total calories with a smaller percentage coming from fats. In contrast, those individuals who are concerned with their body weight may be more likely to reduce caloric intake using fat-modified foods, but may still over consume calories. Health professionals can play a key role in helping consumers understand how to achieve dietary recommendations for fat intake within a well-balanced diet that features the recommended amounts of a variety of foods.
Consumer Knowledge: Yesterday and Today
Extensive IFIC consumer research has shown a knowledge-behavior disconnect in what consumers “know” about diet and nutrition, and what they “do.” Over time, consumers continue to become more knowledgeable about dietary fats and fatty acids, but changes in behavior do not appear to be undertaken. This disconnect may be a result of consumers feeling bombarded with information from a variety of sources such as the Internet, food labels, friends, family, television, government, and a host of others. Many consumers find it difficult to separate valid advice from fad diet recommendations.
This research also showed that consumers have a general sense that fat is needed by the body to function properly, but that too much can pose serious health risks. In addition, it showed that consumers think about fat in a polarized manner. For example, they feel that fats make food taste good, but believe it should be restricted or eliminated completely from the diet. Consumers associate dietary fats more with foods that contain them, rather than the specific fatty acid. Whether fats promote health benefits is still unclear to many consumers, but they are open to messages on how fats promote health in the context of a balanced lifestyle.
Finally, consumer research revealed that consumers do not know how to balance a healthful lifestyle and the foods they most enjoy. Most feel that in order to have more healthful eating habits they need to restrict their favorite foods. Additional IFIC research found that consumers want very personalized dietary information that is specific to their lifestyle. Therefore, it is important for consumers to receive dietary messages that are personalized and realistic in order for them to incorporate a balance of dietary fats into a diet plan that is meant for health or weight loss.
Historically, consumers have expressed a desire for foods lower in calories and fat. But moderation in total fat and making informed choices in dietary fat consumption such as trimming visible fat from meats, removing skin from poultry, and choosing fat-free or low-fat milk, is only one aspect of good nutrition. Balance, variety, and moderate intake of all foods are prudent approaches for the general population. Moreover, a well-balanced diet in combination with plenty of exercise, maintaining proper weight, and controlling conditions such as hypertension or diabetes are the best approaches to living a more healthful lifestyle.
For more information about IFIC consumer research, see: http://www.ific.org/research.
Originally printed in the 2007-2009 IFIC Foundation Media Guide on Food Safety and Nutrition
External Resources
- United States Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)
Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 - United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
MyPyramid.gov Food Guidance System
